Sahitheeyaanam-eng: In Ashoka’s Inscriptions

Ashoka, the architect of a unified India, is a towering figure in history. Over the past century, 1,600 books and thousands of articles have been written about him.

We encounter two versions of Ashoka: the historical Ashoka, seen in inscriptions and structures, and the mythical Ashoka, found in Pali, Sanskrit, and Sinhalese chronicles. These two personas often blend, intentionally or unintentionally, in narratives about him, making it difficult to separate fact from myth.

Buddhist texts from Sri Lanka, Tibet, and China portray Ashoka’s life as an extension of the life he describes in his own inscriptions. Many historians have shaped him into a legendary figure based on these accounts. Their primary literary sources include Buddhist texts like the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Sanskrit works such as Ashokavadana and Buddha Charita, and occasional references to Ashoka in Hindu puranas.

Like the Ramayana, Ashoka’s story has been interpreted differently by poets in various regions, leading to many misconceptions about him among the public.

Historian Christopher Beckwith argues that Ashoka was an obscure king whom Buddhist literature elevated to a grand historical figure. Some even question his historicity. However, Indologists have dismissed such claims as baseless. After James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in which Ashoka’s inscriptions were written, the life and empire of a great ancient emperor came vividly to life. Even today, assessing Ashoka’s personality based on mythical narratives or speaking of him dismissively reflects a continuation of the historical neglect shown by Brahmanical traditions toward the historical Ashoka.

An inscription bearing Ashoka’s name was discovered in 1915 at Maski, Karnataka, which mentions “Devanam Piya Ashoka” (Beloved of the Gods, Ashoka). Similarly, another inscription found in 1954 at Gujjar, Madhya Pradesh, refers to “Devanam Piyadasi Ashokaraja.” At Girnar, Gujarat, an inscription from 150 CE records King Rudradaman mentioning a lake dug by Ashoka and repaired by him, indicating that even 300 years after Ashoka, his constructions were known. These findings affirm Ashoka’s historicity and greatness.

In contrast, the life of Alexander, who lived around the same time as Ashoka, was documented in over 20 contemporary accounts, allowing historians to construct an authoritative biography. For Ashoka, no contemporary records exist, and he had no court historian. The only sources are Buddhist texts written 300 years after his death, describing the lives of holy figures, leaving little room to ascertain their historical accuracy.

Despite these challenges, Ashoka’s numerous rock and pillar inscriptions, which he personally commissioned, allow us to reconstruct his life. These inscriptions reveal much about the emperor, his people, and his religion.

1. Ashoka’s Inscriptions

Ashoka had inscriptions carved across his empire in his name, written in the first person as if he were speaking directly. These were inscribed in three languages and two scripts: Brahmi script in Prakrit for present-day India, and Kharoshthi script in Greek and Aramaic for regions in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. After James Prinsep decoded the Brahmi script in 1834, the life of Ashoka, the emperor of Jambudvipa, was rediscovered.

It is reasonable to assume that the people of the time could read and understand Prakrit, as otherwise, carving so many inscriptions would have been pointless. There is no evidence that Ashoka instructed officials to read them aloud to the public, suggesting that people likely read them themselves. This implies a high literacy rate, possibly 100%. By promoting a common script and language, Ashoka communicated effectively with his subjects. However, the later replacement of Prakrit with Sanskrit, which became confined to an elite class and was not taught to others, led to widespread illiteracy in a once-literate society.

Ashoka’s pillar inscriptions are found across India and are categorized for convenience:

Minor Rock Edicts: Only two exist. Minor Rock Edict I is found at 14 locations, and Minor Rock Edict II at 10. These mention Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhism and some rules related to dharma practice.
Major Rock Edicts: There are 14 in total. Major Rock Edict I is found at eight locations, while Edict XIV is at three. These cover topics like banning animal slaughter, Ashoka’s efforts for public welfare, promoting Buddhist dharma, fostering religious tolerance, and the Kalinga War.
Pillar Edicts: Found at seven locations, these address dharma governance, duties of royal officials, prohibition of animal cruelty, and dharma propagation.

Ashoka’s Pillar Inscriptions

Each pillar is 9–13 meters tall, tapering from a 2-meter base diameter. They are anchored 2.5 meters into the ground on a stone slab. Made from single stones, each weighs about 50 tons. The pillars are adorned with sculptures of lions, bulls, elephants, horses, or the dharma chakra. The four-lion capital from Sarnath was adopted as India’s national emblem.

How these pillars were quarried or carved remains unknown. Their uniform stone suggests centralized production, possibly from quarries in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh. The pillars’ polish, known as Mauryan polish, is unmatched and was never replicated. In 1357 CE, Delhi Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq transported an Ashoka pillar from Topra to Delhi on a cart with 42 wheels and boats, suggesting similar methods in Ashoka’s time.

Inscriptions were typically carved before the pillars were erected, except for the Allahabad pillar, where they were added afterward. Twenty of Ashoka’s pillars have been identified, mostly near Buddhist sites. They may number up to 40 and were called “Dharma Pillars” in the 7th Pillar Edict. A Sanchi sculpture showing two women praying at a pillar suggests they were revered as sacred.

2. Emperor of Jambudvipa

Ashoka’s inscriptions do not mention his Mauryan lineage, his father Bindusara, or grandfather Chandragupta, only his name and titles. Buddhist texts claim he killed his 100 brothers to seize the throne after Bindusara, though no other historical evidence supports this. Historian Patrik Olivelle suggests Ashoka may have avoided mentioning his ancestors due to such conflicts.

This may have been a custom, as the contemporary Kalinga king Kharavela’s inscriptions also omit his ancestors’ names.

Ashoka was crowned in 268 BCE at age 34, meaning he was born around 302 BCE, during his grandfather Chandragupta’s reign. Chandragupta died in 293 BCE, and by the time Bindusara took over, Ashoka was nine. His grandfather and father had diplomatic ties with Greek kingdoms, marrying their princesses. This exposure likely gave Ashoka early familiarity with Greek culture.

In the 14th Major Rock Edict, Ashoka declares, “My empire is vast,” ruled from the capital Pataliputra. In the 1st Minor Rock Edict, he calls his realm Jambudvipa (Island of the Jambu tree, referring to the Indian subcontinent’s shape, resembling a jambu fruit). Ashoka was the first to use this term for the unified Indian subcontinent.

Based on the locations of his inscriptions, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Bangladesh, Nepal, and Kashmir to Afghanistan, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. It was culturally diverse, yet he politically unified it. He referred to neighboring kingdoms as “unconquered” (avijita), a term implying a assertive foreign policy.

Historian Dyson estimates the population of Ashoka’s empire at 20–30 million. At the time, neither China nor Rome had emerged as major powers, making Ashoka’s empire likely the largest in the world by area and population.

A. The Kalinga War

The Kalinga War is synonymous with Ashoka. Though Odisha claims Kalinga, historically, it spanned from northern Andhra to Rajamahendravaram in Andhra Pradesh.

In October/November 260 BCE, Ashoka invaded Kalinga. He does not explain why or describe the kingdom. Kalinga was rich in war elephants and controlled trade routes linking northern and southern India, which may have prompted the invasion.

The war’s devastation deeply affected Ashoka. In the 13th Major Rock Edict, he expresses remorse for the massive loss of life, stating, “In the eighth year of his reign, King Priyadarshi conquered Kalinga. 150,000 were taken captive, 100,000 died, and many more perished. The slaughter, death, and displacement of people are painful and lamentable to Devanampriya.” He adds, “Even a hundredth or thousandth of the deaths in Kalinga causes me sorrow. Forgiveness is my principle.”

This public apology for the war’s destruction is unique in world history. However, Ashoka does not condemn the war itself, only its human cost.

In the same edict, he calls the Greek king Antiochus his friend and mentions neighboring rulers Tulamaya, Antekina, Maka, and Alikasundale (Antiochus II’s grandson, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonus of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus). Their reigns (261–246 BCE, 285–247 BCE, 276–239 BCE, 258–250 BCE, 272–255 BCE) help historians pinpoint Ashoka’s timeline. He also mentions southern boundaries like Pandya, Chola, Satyaputra, and Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).

B. Administrative System

Ashoka’s empire was a mosaic of diverse ethnicities, languages, and cultures. Pataliputra, centrally located, was a month’s journey from the empire’s borders, or two months round-trip, longer in the rainy season. The Mauryas managed this vast empire with a strong central army and local governance. Inscriptions mention officials like mahamatras, rajjukas, aryaputras, and pradeshikas who enforced royal decrees locally, supported by an efficient spy network.

In the 6th Major Rock Edict, Ashoka says, “Whether I am dining, in my private chambers, on a vehicle, in the garden, or at a secret lodge, reports about the people must reach me immediately. If obstacles arise in implementing my orders, mahamatras must bring them to my attention.” This reflects his 24/7 accessibility to officials and spies.

Ashoka adopted the ancient belief that a person is born with three debts—to sages, gods, and ancestors—extending this metaphor to governance. In the 6th Major Rock Edict, he states, “I am indebted to my people. By ensuring their welfare, I repay this debt. My officials must assist me in this.” This concept remains novel even today.

In contrast to Brahmanical traditions, where the king is divine, Buddhism views the king as “beloved of the gods.” When kings were deified, the idea of repaying a debt to the people lost value. The Brahmanical notion of “the king as god” likely gained royal favor.

In the 6th Pillar Edict, appointing rajjukas (judicial officials), Ashoka says, “Just as we entrust our child to a capable nurse, I appoint these rajjukas for the welfare and happiness of the people.” This suggests he viewed his empire as a family and himself as its patriarch.

In the 5th Pillar Edict, he notes, “In the 26 years since my coronation, I have released prisoners 25 times,” showing compassion for inmates. He advocated a balanced approach—neither excessive leniency nor cruelty—toward offenders.

Public Welfare

In the 2nd Major Rock Edict, Ashoka states, “I have appointed two types of physicians—for humans and animals. Medicinal herbs for both, where unavailable, have been imported and planted. Similarly, roots and fruits have been brought and cultivated. Trees have been planted along roads, and wells dug for humans and animals.”

In the 7th Pillar Edict, he adds, “I have planted banyan and mango trees along roads for shade for travelers and animals. I have dug a well every eight krosas (about 24 km).”

Ashoka’s initiatives—planting trees, digging wells, cultivating fruit and medicinal plants, and establishing medical care for humans and animals—are still relevant today. Publicly inscribing these works reflects transparency, akin to a “public audit.”

3. The People

Ashoka’s inscriptions are primarily dialogues between the king, his people, and his officials. While they do not directly describe society, they offer indirect insights.

Various edicts urge “affection and respect” toward slaves and servants. Servants (bhritakas) were paid workers, possibly with limited freedom to choose employers. Slaves (dasas) had no freedom, living under their masters’ control. Slavery was state-sanctioned, as seen in the 13th Major Rock Edict, which notes that 150,000 Kalinga captives were taken, likely sold or distributed as war booty.

The Apastamba Dharmashastra, written in Ashoka’s time, mandates that masters provide food to slaves and servants even during famine. The Buddha’s advice to a householder, Putta Sigala, to treat slaves kindly, assign work based on their strength, provide good food, and grant leave when ill, sheds light on their lives.

Diversity

Ashoka’s empire was geographically and ethnically diverse, mentioning nine groups: Kamboja, Gandhara, Ristikas, and Nabhapanktis in the northwest; Paladas, Bhojas, Andhras, Kalingas, and Pitinikas in the Deccan, many of whom were tribal.

Ashoka does not mention the chaturvarna (four-caste) system. The term “Brahmana” appears only as a religious group, not a social caste, referring to practitioners of Brahmanism. Historian Johannes Bronkhorst notes that pre-2nd-century CE inscriptions in non-Sanskrit languages, including ancient Tamil, lack references to the caste system. Whether Ashoka ignored the system or it was not yet entrenched is debatable.

Women

Ashoka’s inscriptions offer little insight into women’s social status. The Queen’s Pillar Edict, inscribed by Ashoka, records donations and constructions by his second queen, Karuvaki, suggesting queens had independent income and spending authority. Other edicts mention mothers, sisters, Buddhist nuns, and women giving auspicious blessings, but their roles and rights remain unclear. Society was likely patriarchal. Buddhist texts mention Ashoka’s five wives, with stories of his youngest, Tissarakka, acting maliciously, but these lack historical evidence.

4. Religion

The survival of Buddhism between the Buddha and Ashoka is a historical challenge due to scarce archaeological evidence from the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE. Some absurdly claim Ashoka invented the Buddha, a modern echo of Brahmanical dismissal of Buddhism. After the Buddha’s parinirvana, Buddhism took root in the upper Ganges and gradually spread. Ashoka embraced and globalized it, evidenced by the ubiquitous Buddhist relics found today, a result of his patronage. However, Buddhism was not insignificant before him.

Evidence of pre-Ashokan Buddhism includes:

Excavations at Lumbini, the Buddha’s birthplace, uncovered 6th-century BCE tree worship symbols, possibly early Buddhist structures.
A 1950s dig at Vaishali revealed a pre-Ashokan mud stupa.
Relics from Piprahwa/Kapilavastu, claimed to be the Buddha’s, were carbon-dated to the 5th century BCE in 1971.
Six sites tied to the Buddha’s life—Lumbini, Vaishali, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kosambi, and Rajagriha—were already revered Buddhist pilgrimage sites when Ashoka erected pillars there in the 3rd century BCE.
Buddhism existed in Kashmir before Ashoka, introduced by Madhyantika, a disciple of Ananda, 50 years after the Buddha’s death, and patronized by King Surendra.

A. Adoption of Buddhism

In the 1st Minor Rock Edict (257 BCE), Ashoka says, “It has been two and a half years since I became an upasaka (lay Buddhist). A year ago, I visited the Sangha and have since been very enthusiastic. I have mingled gods unknown to the people of Jambudvipa with them. This is the result of my zeal. Not only the great but also the lowly, through practice, can attain great heavens.”

Found at 14 locations, this edict uses Buddhist terms like upasaka and sangha. The phrase “mingled gods with people” suggests he popularized Buddhism, previously less widespread. His mention of the “lowly” hints at extending Buddhism to marginalized groups.

B. Dharma Pilgrimages

Unlike typical emperors who toured for security, revenue, or pleasure, Ashoka began Buddhist pilgrimages in his 11th regnal year (258 BCE). In the 8th Major Rock Edict, he says, “Formerly, Devanampriya went on pleasure tours. Here, he made a dharma pilgrimage to Sambodhi (Bodh Gaya). These involve visiting Shramanas and Brahmanas, giving gold, and preaching dharma to the people.”

This was novel for royal custom. Brahmanas and Shramanas represented opposing religious poles—Brahmanism versus Buddhism or Jainism. Ashoka continued these pilgrimages, visiting Lumbini, the Buddha’s birthplace, a decade later, erecting a pillar there.

In the Lumbini Pillar Edict (248 BCE), he says, “Because Buddha Shakyamuni was born here, King Priyadarshi, in the 20th year of his reign, came and worshipped. To mark the Buddha’s birthplace, he erected a stone pillar and exempted Lumbini villagers from taxes.”

These pilgrimages allowed Ashoka to spread his inscriptions and Buddhist beliefs, inviting people to join him.

C. Preventing Schisms

Efforts to divide the Buddhist Sangha emerged during Ashoka’s time. The Sarnath Pillar Edict addresses this: “No one shall split the Sangha. Any monk or nun who does so shall be made to wear white robes and live elsewhere.” This implies expulsion from the Sangha, as monks wear saffron robes.

The edict outlines enforcement: “A copy of this edict shall be kept in the mahamatras’ office and another in the upasakas’ residence. On fasting days, mahamatras must ensure upasakas uphold its principles. Send an officer to proclaim this within your jurisdiction.”

This detailed standard operating procedure (SOP), unique among Ashoka’s inscriptions, shows how he ensured compliance, countering forces weakening the Sangha.

D. Secularism

In Brahmanical literature, pashanda (heretic) referred to those rejecting Vedic authority, including Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas, and Charvakas. In Ashoka’s inscriptions, pashanda is neutral, denoting various religious groups. His empire hosted Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivikism, collectively called pashandas.

In the 12th Major Rock Edict, Ashoka says, “Devanampriya honors all pashandas, ascetics, and householders, with gifts and respect. One should not praise their sect or disparage others inappropriately. Respecting other sects benefits both one’s own and others’. Condemning others harms one’s sect most. Dharma advancement is paramount, not gifts or worship.”

This promotes mutual respect among religions, a hallmark of Ashoka’s secularism.

In the 13th Major Rock Edict, he notes, “Except among the Yavanas in the northwest, Brahmanas and Shramanas exist everywhere. No land lacks pashandas following some faith,” highlighting his empire’s religious diversity.
In the 6th Pillar Edict, he says, “I have honored all pashandas in various ways. Personally meeting people is most important. In my 26th regnal year, I had this dharma edict inscribed.”
In the 7th Pillar Edict, he states, “I appointed mahamatras to oversee pashandas’ affairs—some for Brahmanas, others for Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas (Jains). They engage with their assigned groups and other pashandas.”

Ashoka fostered harmony among diverse faiths, aiming for a global family (vasudhaiva kutumbakam).

In the 7th Major Rock Edict, he says, “Devanampriya desires that all pashandas may live wherever they wish.” Historian Rajeevi Bhargava suggests this addressed restrictions on pashandas’ movement, as Kautilya and Manu advised isolating or exiling them. Ashoka’s edict ensured equal freedom for all faiths, a precursor to modern secularism.

E. Ahimsa as Supreme Dharma

Ashoka promoted non-violence (ahimsa) in many edicts. In the 1st Major Rock Edict, he says, “No animals shall be killed or sacrificed here. People should not gather for social festivals. Formerly, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed daily in Devanampriya’s kitchen. Now, only two peacocks and one deer are killed daily, and not always. Henceforth, even these three shall not be killed.”

By publicly adhering to his own decrees, Ashoka earned public trust. Social festivals involved animal sacrifices, alcohol, and unruly behavior, as noted in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which permitted liquor sales during festivals. Ashoka banned these practices, viewing religion as a personal practice, not a communal spectacle—a potentially idealistic stance, as history shows such ideals often fail socially.

In the 7th Pillar Edict, he says, “I planted banyan trees and mango groves along roads for shade, dug wells every eight krosas with steps, and built rest-houses for humans and animals.” Ashoka was not only a great ruler but also an environmentalist, protecting wildlife, forests, biodiversity, and water resources.

Legacy

Ashoka died in 232 BCE after a 36-year reign. His grandson Dasharatha ruled for 8 years, followed by Samprati (9 years), Shalishulka (13 years), Devavarma (7 years), Shatadhanvan (8 years), and Brihadratha (7 years). In 181 BCE, Brihadratha was killed by his Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga, ending the Maurya dynasty and founding the Shunga dynasty, which ruled for 137 years.

Ashoka’s heirs lacked his competence, and none inscribed their thoughts like him. His dream of religious unity died with him. Brahmanical dominance grew, challenging Ashoka’s policies. Brahmanical literature crafted figures like Rama and Yudhishthira as ideal warriors and dharma protectors to counter Buddhist principles of ahimsa and compassion. Historian Madeleine Biardeau links the Mahabharata to Ashoka, and Indologist James L. Fitzgerald sees Yudhishthira as a Brahmanical counterpart to Ashoka. These epics sidelined Ashoka, preserving Brahmanical exceptionalism.

Post-Ashoka, his vasudhaiva kutumbakam ideals faded. He built caves for Ajivikas at Barabar, but later, their names were erased. The term pashanda was redefined by Brahmanism as “anti-Vedic.” Yet, the 1st-century CE Hathigumpha inscription of Jain king Kharavela, who called himself “one who honors all pashandas,” and Mughal emperor Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi echo Ashoka’s secularism.

Jawaharlal Nehru admired Ashoka, naming his daughter Indira Priyadarshini after him. In a 1931 letter from prison, Nehru quoted H.G. Wells, saying, “Amidst countless kings, Ashoka’s name shines uniquely, like a star.” Nehru adopted Ashoka’s dharma chakra for India’s flag and the four-lion capital as the national emblem, founding a university in his name. Today, Ashoka’s lion capital on India’s flag, documents, stamps, and currency symbolizes his enduring revival.

By Bolloju Baba

References:

Ashoka’s inscriptions cited from Ashoka Dharmashasanalu by Dr. C.V. Ramachandra Rao and Ashoka Chakravarti Dharmashasanalu by Chilukuri Narayana Rao.
An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism by Lars Fogelin, p. 83.
The Relics of Culture, Vol I by William Anderson Gittens, p. 78.
Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in Ancient Kashmir by Umar Ahmad Khanday, Journal of Critical Reviews, Vol. 01, 2019.