1. Birth and Education
Max Müller (1823–1900) was born on December 6, 1823, in Dessau, Germany. In 1843, he earned a degree from Leipzig University, specializing in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. After learning Sanskrit under Professor Brockhaus, he translated his first Sanskrit text, Hitopadesha, into English in 1844. He began collecting manuscripts for translating the Vedas.
2. What Did Müller Do?
Max Müller settled in Oxford in 1848 and became the founder of the study of ancient Indian languages at Oxford University. He published the first volume of the Rigveda translation titled Rigveda Samhita in 1849 and completed the translation in six volumes by 1874. Though he wrote articles on other Vedas, he didn’t translate them entirely.
Through his writings, Müller sparked European interest in Hinduism. His books on Sanskrit, like Handbook for the Study of Sanskrit and Sanskrit-English Dictionary and Grammar, were instrumental for students of Sanskrit.
Müller appreciated Sanskrit literature for its profound human values, stating that it conveyed lessons unmatched even by Greek literature.
He served as the editor of the monumental Sacred Books of the East series, consisting of 50 volumes, which introduced Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Islamic scriptures to the world.
Müller is considered a pioneer of comparative religious studies. In 1856, his research paper Comparative Mythology gained international acclaim. He proposed a methodology to trace the historical relationships between cultures by comparing their myths and evolution. For instance, studying how various civilizations perceived the sun could help analyze their historical development.
Through Müller’s efforts, Indian spiritual texts became accessible to the global audience. His work sought to understand the evolution of human thought through language, mythology, and religion.
3. What Do the Vedas Contain?
Ancient India was divided into two groups: those who accepted the Vedas and those who opposed them. Those who accepted the Vedas were termed Veda-followers or Hindus, while groups like Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas, and Charvakas were labeled Veda-rejecters. The Vedas are said to be divine revelations, not authored by humans.
The four Vedas are:
- Rigveda: Hymns praising deities.
- Yajurveda: Ritual instructions for sacrifices.
- Samaveda: Chants and melodies.
- Atharvaveda: Magical spells and incantations.
Each Veda is further divided into four parts:
- Samhitas (hymns),
- Brahmanas (ritual texts),
- Aranyakas (theological discussions),
- Upanishads (spiritual teachings).
Critics argue that social hierarchies, caste systems, and other societal issues have roots in Vedic literature.
A. Caste-Based Social Ladder:
The Purusha Sukta in the Rigveda describes how different varnas (castes) originated from the divine being:
- Brahmins (priests) from the mouth,
- Kshatriyas (warriors) from the arms,
- Vaishyas (traders) from the thighs,
- Shudras (laborers) from the feet.
This hierarchy institutionalized caste-based divisions. Thinkers like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Phule criticized the Vedas for perpetuating caste discrimination.
B. Emphasis on Rituals:
The Vedas prioritize sacrificial rituals (yajnas), which involved mass animal sacrifices. This was opposed by Buddhism, Ajivikas, and Charvakas.
C. Exclusion of Women and Shudras:
Women and Shudras had no significant roles in Vedic rituals, which has drawn criticism.
D. Aggression Against Indigenous People:
The Aryans, who composed the Vedas, were pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian steppe (modern-day Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan). They clashed with the indigenous Harappans, destroying their cities and calling them dasas or asuras in the Vedas.
The Rigveda refers to Indra as Purandara (destroyer of cities) and mentions violent campaigns against the natives, such as killing 30,000 Dasas. The Aryans even prayed for the destruction of their enemies’ unborn children. Genetic studies have corroborated the migration and invasions of Aryans.
4. Why Do Sanatan Scholars Oppose Max Müller?
A. Exposing Secrets:
Hindu scholars guarded the Vedas for nearly 3,000 years, imposing restrictions on who could read or hear them. For instance, Shudras were forbidden from hearing Vedas, with punishments as severe as pouring molten lead into their ears.
When Supreme Court judge William Jones attempted to learn Sanskrit in 1783, Brahmins refused to teach him. He learned from a non-Brahmin physician and eventually translated texts like Manusmriti into English.
Müller further exposed these secrets by translating the Vedas, allowing people to understand how Brahmins had used the texts to maintain societal dominance. This transparency angered Sanatan scholars, who claimed Müller mistranslated the Vedas or misinterpreted them from a colonial perspective.
B. Claiming “Everything Is in the Vedas”:
Sanatan scholars assert that the Vedas contain advanced scientific knowledge, such as:
- The Pythagorean theorem,
- Atomic bombs,
- The speed of light,
- Cosmology, quantum theory, and even aviation technology.
They criticize Müller for not highlighting these supposed scientific marvels. However, these claims remain unsubstantiated in scientific journals.
C. Was Müller a Colonial Agent?
Sanatan scholars allege that Müller was employed by the British to translate the Vedas in a way that eroded faith in them. They cite a fabricated letter claiming Müller wrote, “he was employed to translate the Vedas so Hindus lose faith in them.”
In reality, Müller wrote that his aim was to remove misinterpretations and reveal the truth of the Vedas. Müller himself expressed profound respect for the spiritual insights of the Vedas, likening them to "morning sunlight and pure breezes."
D. The Reliability of Müller’s Translations:
Critics like Dayanand Saraswati, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Aurobindo argued that Müller approached the Vedas as mere human prayers, rather than as spiritual revelations with multiple layers of meaning.
However, Müller’s translations were among the first systematic attempts to interpret the Vedas using modern historical and linguistic methods. His scientific approach, which contrasted with the mystical interpretations of Indian scholars, remains a significant reason for Sanatan opposition.
5. The Aryan Invasion Theory and Dating the Vedic Period
Max Müller conducted a comparative study of languages, cultures, and religions. Based on his understanding, he proposed that the Aryans who composed the Vedas migrated to the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia around 1500 BCE. He suggested that these Aryans brought with them the Vedic culture and the Sanskrit language, introducing them to northern India. According to his analysis, the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.
This hypothesis did not sit well with Sanatan scholars, who believe that the Vedas date back to at least 5000 BCE. Furthermore, they argue that the Aryans were indigenous to India and not migrants from elsewhere.
6. Modern Understanding
Today, advancements in genetic research allow us to trace the migration patterns of ancient populations across time. Studies of ancient DNA reveal that around 2000 BCE, Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe (modern-day Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan) migrated to India. These migrants are identified as the Aryans who composed the Rigveda.
Modern genetic findings align closely with Max Müller's proposition that Aryans migrated to India around 1500 BCE. These Aryans were horse riders, and there are approximately 200 hymns in the Vedas that reference horses. However, horses are not indigenous to India; they are exotic animals. This explains the absence of horse remains or depictions in the archaeological findings of the Harappan civilization, further supporting the idea that Aryans migrated into India with horses.
Müller’s dating of the Vedic period to 1500–1200 BCE has been largely validated by modern studies on Indo-European languages.
As a comparative linguist, Müller observed similarities between Avestan (a language of ancient Persia) and Sanskrit, leading him to hypothesize that the Sanskrit-speaking Aryans migrated from Central Asia. He also noted references to violent conflicts in the Vedic texts, which he interpreted as evidence of Aryan invasions. These observations culminated in the "Aryan Invasion Theory."
During Müller's time, genetic science did not exist, nor was there technology to trace genetic movements in populations or compare linguistic similarities using computational methods. Despite these limitations, Müller accurately hypothesized about 90% of what we now confirm through genetic evidence and modern linguistics. Social scientists today distinguish between the Aryan migrations (substantiated by genetic evidence) and the invasions (inferred from the Vedic texts). Müller's scholarly approach to the Vedas made these insights possible, showcasing his intellectual acumen.
What Is the Problem with the Aryan Migration Theory?
If Aryans were migrants, then Sanatan scholars argue that they would be no different from the Turkic invaders from Central Asia. For those who have long asserted that the Indian subcontinent is their ancestral land, this idea is deeply unsettling. Consequently, for over a century, efforts have been made to refute the Aryan migration theory, often using Max Müller as a scapegoat to dismiss the theory as flawed.
More recently, some scholars have claimed that traces of Sanskrit can be found in Harappan inscriptions and that the Harappan culture is, in fact, Vedic culture.
However, modern genetic research continues to reveal strong evidence for the Aryan migration theory. Faced with these findings, some Sanatan scholars have introduced the "Out of India Theory," which argues that Aryans originated in India, migrated to Central Asia, and then returned to India around 1500 BCE. This argument lacks acceptance among global Indologists, leaving Sanatan historians in a difficult position.
Interestingly, studies of R1 haplogroup DNA (associated with Steppe ancestry) reveal that this genetic marker is significantly more prevalent among Brahmins in modern Indian society than among lower castes.
7. Conclusion
“Max Müller is like the great sage Vasishtha Mahamuni,” said Swami Vivekananda.
The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Vedas date back to the 11th century. Max Müller based his translation on a Rigveda manuscript preserved by East India Company officials like William Jones and H.H. Wilson in European libraries, as well as the 14th-century commentary on the Rigveda by Sayanacharya. During the final stages of his translation, Müller collaborated with Indian Sanskrit scholars.
In his preface, Müller remarked, “It took me 25 years to translate the Vedas and another 20 years to refine and publish them.” This means Müller dedicated 45 years of his life to translating the Vedas.
Sanatan scholars often accuse Müller of receiving a hefty sum of nine lakh rupees from the East India Company (equivalent to four pounds per page). However, this was a modest remuneration for 45 years of scholarly work. Müller used this money to pay the Sanskrit scholars who assisted him during the final stages of his work.
On May 28, 1896, Swami Vivekananda met Max Müller in Oxford. The two discussed Indian Vedanta and spirituality. By then, Müller was in his old age. Vivekananda held Müller in high regard, and Müller reciprocated with sincere affection. Describing their meeting, Vivekananda said, “Seeing the elderly couple, I felt they resembled Vasishtha and Arundhati living in an ashram. Max Müller is a reincarnation of Sayanacharya. When I left, Müller bade me farewell with tears in his eyes. There is no Sanskrit scholar in India today who can compare with Max Müller.”
Though neither Max Müller nor Vivekananda used the term “secularism,” they are regarded as pioneers of secular thought in Indian society.
Ironically, Max Müller, often criticized by Sanatan scholars, never visited India during his lifetime. He conducted all his work from Oxford University. In the end, the final irony lies with Müller himself.
Bolloju Baba
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