Nagas - Ancient Rulers of India
Among the ancient rulers of India, the Nagas were a significant ethnic group. They were serpent worshippers, non-Aryan, pre-Vedic, and indigenous tribes. Notable Naga clans such as Ahivritra, Ashwasena, Takshaka, Gonanda, Karkota, Brahmadutta, Sisunaga, Nanda, and Andhra/Satavahanas ruled various parts of India from 500 BCE to 500 CE. It is unclear what name they were known by before being called “Nagas” in Sanskrit.
Some seals from the Indus Valley Civilization indicate the presence of Naga worship among its people.
1. Indus Valley Civilization – Naga Worship
The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE) is the most ancient in the social evolution of India. Seals from this period depicting serpent figures suggest that Naga worship was a significant aspect of Indian philosophical thought. One seal shows a deity with a buffalo head, flanked by two devotees with hands joined in reverence, each with a serpent standing behind them, covering their heads.
Another seal depicts a warrior fighting a buffalo with a weapon, with a serpent standing on its tail behind the buffalo. While the exact meaning of this seal is unclear, the prominence of the serpent reinforces the antiquity of Naga worship.
Naga sculptures are ubiquitous in South India. Childless women pray for offspring, and unmarried women for marriage, often donating Naga sculptures after their wishes are fulfilled. These are typically installed at village boundaries, under peepal trees in temples, or on pond banks. The sculptures often depict a cobra with its hood spread, coiled, and standing on its tail, or paired serpents entwined. The roots of this tradition, dating back five thousand years to the Indus Valley Civilization, reflect the antiquity of this land.
2. Mentions of Nagas in the Vedas
The Rigveda mentions Vritrasura, a pre-Vedic figure also known as Ahi (serpent). “Vritra” means “to envelop,” and “Ahi” means serpent. Vritrasura is referred to as Dasyu, Dasa, or Asura in various contexts. He is said to have enveloped rivers like a great serpent, halting their flow. Indra engaged in a fierce battle with Vritra, fainting under his might. Unable to defeat Vritra, Indra, on Brahma’s advice, befriended him for a thousand years, awaiting an opportunity to strike. Vritra, a devotee of Shiva, was killed by Indra with Vishnu’s help when he neglected his Shiva worship one day.
Indigenous tribes (non-Aryan/pre-Vedic) were agriculturalists. Since Vritra was also called Ahi, he may have been a leader of a local Naga tribe. Vedic people (Aryans/Indo-Aryans) were pastoralists. Building dams to divert water was essential for agriculture, but Vedic people viewed the Nagas, who obstructed water flow, as enemies. Indra represented Vedic culture, while Vritra symbolized the indigenous people.
Globally, literature often depicts human conflicts as battles between gods. The clash between Indra and Vritrasura should be understood as a historical struggle over water resources between two ethnic groups.
3. Decline of Vedic Religion – Role of Nagas
In Vedic society, a “Manu” was appointed to decide religious matters, akin to a high priest. During the peak of Vedic religion, 14 Manus were appointed consecutively. Their reign was called a “Manvantara.” The first Manu was Svayambhuva, and the fourteenth was Indrasavarni, around 950 BCE, coinciding with the Mahabharata war. A fifteenth Manu was expected, but significant societal changes after 950 BCE prevented this. Historians propose three reasons:
- The Mahabharata war caused widespread destruction, annihilating royal dynasties that supported Vedic religion. Without royal patronage, Vedic religion lost its societal hold, and the Naga tribes gradually filled the resulting void.
- Between 800–1000 BCE, migrations from Central Asia, driven by Assyrian attacks on West Asia, brought skilled warriors with iron weapons to India, as noted by historian Dr. Naval Viyogi. These migrants opposed Vedic culture and merged with local Nagas, strengthening them. Post-Vedic society saw Naga culture replace Vedic religion.
- Jain and Buddhist Shramana traditions, which strongly opposed the Vedas, flourished. The Nagas embraced and bolstered these traditions, contributing to the decline of Vedic religion.
4. Nagas in Buddhism
Nagas are prominently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts. While Hindu epics and Puranas, except for Adishesha, demean Nagas by calling them Asuras, Dasyus, Rakshasas, Danavas, or Daityas, Buddhist literature honors them with great respect. Nagas revered Buddha with deep devotion. Sculptures indicate that Nagas and Naginis (female Nagas) played a significant role in Buddhist cultural and religious evolution. Archaeological evidence of their societal contributions is found in Buddhist sculptures.
- According to the Lalitavistara, serpentine kings Nanda and Upananda provided water from the sky in pitchers for Siddhartha’s first bath at birth. Sculptures depicting this event are found at Amaravati and Sanchi stupas, indicating Nagas’ bond with Buddha from his birth.
- After attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, Buddha broke his fast with kheer offered by a devotee, Sujata, in a golden vessel. After bathing in the Nairanjana River, a Naga habitat, a Naga king’s daughter provided a golden seat for Buddha. He ate the kheer and released the empty vessel into the river. A Naga king, Sagara, intended to enshrine it in his worship hall but was challenged by Indra, disguised as a hawk, who ultimately took the vessel to heaven after failing to seize it. The Naga king’s daughter preserved the golden seat and worshipped it daily. In early Buddhism, symbols like the alms bowl and vajrasana represented Buddha in sculptures. A vajrasana, believed to be built by Ashoka, exists in Bodh Gaya, and a stone bowl revered as Buddha’s alms bowl is in Kabul’s National Museum.
- While Buddha meditated under the Bodhi tree, a fierce storm arose. Muchilinda, a Naga king, coiled around Buddha and spread his hood to protect him for seven days. After the storm, Muchilinda bowed at Buddha’s feet, circumambulated him thrice, and departed.
- After Buddha’s parinirvana, eight contemporary kings fought for his relics. A Brahmin, Drona, mediated, dividing the relics into eight equal parts, averting war, as per the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. These relics were sent to Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar, and Vethadipa, where stupas were built. Later, Ashoka opened seven of these stupas to distribute the relics and build 84,000 stupas. When he attempted to open the Ramagrama stupa in Nepal, a Naga king guarding it objected. Respecting his beliefs, Ashoka left it untouched. This event is depicted in an Amaravati stone relief showing three five-headed serpents encircling the stupa, with a Naga king and queen on either side, the queen praying and the king holding a flower garland, and Naginis praying below.
- Elapatra, a Naga king, followed Buddha’s teachings and acquired his relics after nirvana, as noted by Xuanzang in his travelogue.
- In Sri Lanka, Buddha converted 80 crore Nagas to Buddhism under the rule of Naga king Mahodara, as per Buddhist texts like Ratnakari and Rajavali.
5. Nagas in Jainism
While a yogi named Kamath performed a fire ritual, Prince Parshvanatha, not yet a Tirthankara, warned him that burning logs endangered living beings. Two snakes, unable to bear the heat, emerged from a log and died. In their next birth, they were reborn as Dharanendra and Padmavati in the Naga realm, while Kamath was reborn as Meghmali, controller of clouds.
At 30, Parshvanatha renounced the world. While meditating, Meghmali sent torrential rains, thunder, and floods to disrupt him. Dharanendra, king of the Naga realm, lifted Parshvanatha and sheltered him with his hood. In gratitude, Parshvanatha honored him with a special status. A seven-hooded serpent above a Tirthankara’s head identifies the statue as Parshvanatha’s. Jainism venerates serpents as protective deities for meditating Tirthankaras.
6. Brahmanical Puranas and the Naga Tribe
In his Nagpur speech while embracing Buddhism, Dr. Ambedkar said, “The Nagas were the first to propagate Buddhism. They fought many wars with Aryans. In an attempt to wipe out the Naga race, Aryans burned them in fires, and we are the descendants of those who survived.”
Due to religious conflicts, Brahmanism and Buddhism clashed throughout history. The Nagas embraced Buddhism and fought against Brahmanism. Under Gupta rule, Buddhism lost royal patronage, and Brahmanism was promoted. In 335 CE, Samudragupta eliminated 13 prominent Naga kings, including Achyuta and Nagasena, introduced a caste-based feudal system, destroyed craft guilds supporting Buddhism, and crippled India’s economy and defense systems. This plunged the populace into slavery, poverty, inequality, and exclusion, marking the beginning of dark days in Indian history. As history is written by victors, the Gupta era is glorified as a golden age.
Brahmanical Puranas, composed from the Gupta period to the 10th century, condemned Buddhist, Jain, and Charvaka philosophies, appropriating some of their elements and weaving tales and myths. These Puranas depicted Naga kings who supported Buddhism as demons, defeated foes, slaves, or Asuras. While Puranas and epics cannot be dismissed as pure fiction, they likely contain symbolic historical elements. Modern disconnection from the past makes them seem entirely mythical.
- The Mahabharata depicts two deliberate attempts to annihilate the Nagas: Janamejaya’s Sarpa Yaga to exterminate the Naga race and the burning of Khandava forest to eliminate Nagas residing there.
- Sage Kashyapa had two wives, Kadru and Vinata, who became pregnant simultaneously. Kadru’s eggs hatched into a thousand serpents, including Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata, Takshaka, Karkotaka, Dhananjaya, Kaliya, Maninaga, Purana, Pinjaraka, and Elapatra. Vinata, impatient, broke one egg, birthing a half-formed child, Anuru, who became the Sun’s charioteer. Her second egg hatched Garuda. Except for Shesha, these serpents are depicted as defeated in various Puranas, symbolizing Brahmanical suppression of Naga culture. The serpent, a Naga symbol, was appropriated as Shesha, Vishnu’s bed, in Brahmanical religion.
- Kadru’s son Kaliya, defeated by Garuda, hid in a pool in the Kalindi River, poisoning its waters. Krishna subdued him, and Kaliya and his wives sought refuge. Krishna ordered him to leave for Ramanaka Island, assuring safety from Garuda due to Krishna’s footprint on his hood. This story subtly conveys the displacement and subjugation of Nagas.
- Post-Mahabharata, Parikshit, son of Abhimanyu and Uttara, died from a snakebite by Takshaka due to a curse. His son, Janamejaya, conducted a Sarpa Yaga to annihilate all Nagas in revenge, burning serpents in a sacrificial fire. When Takshaka sought Indra’s protection, both nearly perished until Rishi Astika persuaded Janamejaya to stop the ritual, saving the Nagas. This likely symbolizes a genocidal attempt by Janamejaya against the Nagas, who grew powerful in northwest India post-Mahabharata anarchy, possibly defeating Parikshit in Gandhara.
- In a grand yajna by King Shwetaki, excessive ghee caused indigestion in Agni. Brahma advised burning the Khandava forest, home to Takshaka and his followers, to restore Agni’s health. With Arjuna’s help, Agni incinerated the forest. Serpents fled in fear, but Arjuna killed many with arrows. Takshaka’s wife and son, Ashwasena, narrowly escaped. Takshaka survived as he was elsewhere. This event, depicting Nagas as enemies and animals, reflects a Brahmanical-Naga conflict. The Pandavas built Indraprastha on the conquered Naga land, part of their suppression. This may explain why Nagas fought for the Kauravas in the Mahabharata.
- Manasa, daughter of Shiva, was born from his semen falling on a statue carved by Kadru, the Naga mother, who lamented her lack of daughters. Manasa’s brother is Vasuki. Married to Rishi Jaratkaru, her temper led to abandonment by her husband, father, and Parvati. Her son, Astika, halted Janamejaya’s Sarpa Yaga, saving the Nagas. In Bengal, Manasa is worshipped as a formless deity, often a serpent or tree branch, revered as a protector from snakebites and later as a healer of diseases like smallpox. Her story illustrates the deep-rooted Naga tradition among commoners. Nagas like Vasuki and Shesha gained honorable roles in Brahmanical literature, with Shesha, the eldest son of Kashyapa and Kadru, chosen by Brahma as Ananta, Vishnu’s bed, for his piety.
- Many Brahmanical heroes married Naga maidens, likely symbolizing victorious kings taking women from defeated kingdoms. Arjuna married Uluchi, King Brahmadatta of Kashi married a Nagini, Rama’s son Kusha married Nagakanya Kumudavani, and Jaratkaru married Manasa, Vasuki’s sister. Historically, Chandragupta II married Kuberanaga, and Pallava founder Ashwatthama married a Naga maiden, as per a 9th-century Rayakota grant. These marriages signify the assimilation of Indo-Aryan and indigenous tribes.
7. Nagas in Inscriptions
Archaeological excavations in ancient India frequently mention Nagas. Greek historian Aelian (pre-CE) noted Naga worship in India. Punch-marked coins with Naga symbols from 600–300 BCE have been found. Coins from Taxila (3rd–4th century BCE) bear serpent symbols alongside triratna and stupa motifs. Coins from Kosam (Jain Kaushambi), 30 km from Allahabad, issued by King Parvata (200 BCE), feature serpent seals. Coins from Ayodhya rulers Vishakhadeva, Dhanadeva, and Kumudasena (150–100 BCE) bear serpent seals, with Kumudasena’s coins showing Nandi and triratna symbols.
Veerasena (175–180 CE), a Naga king ruling Mathura after the Kushans, issued coins with Naga symbols. In the 2nd century BCE, Satavahana empress Naganika’s Nanaghat inscription mentions Naga deity worship (“nagavaradayiniya”) and a commander named Nakayiro, suggesting Naga origins despite their Brahmanical claims. A 113 CE Kharoshthi inscription from Gandhara records Thera Nora, a Greek, digging a pond for Nagas. Mathura inscriptions from the 1st century CE mention Naga worship, including one where a woman donated a Naga statue after bearing a child, a tradition continuing today.
Names ending in “Naga” like Jayanaga, Mahanaga, Nagabhatikiya, Nagadina, Nagadatta, Nagavati, Nagapiya, and Nagasena appear in various inscriptions. Samudragupta’s 350 CE Allahabad Prasasti mentions Naga kings Ganapatinaga and Nagasena, with Ganapatinaga’s coins found in Vidisha and Mathura. Naga rule in Kashmir is detailed in the 8th-century Nilamatapurana. Some Naga dynasties maintained influence in the Deccan until the 10th century. Dynasties like Kashmir, Manipur, Nagpur, Cholas, and Pallavas claimed Naga lineage, with Kashmir kings tracing descent from Karkotaka and Nagpur kings from Pundarika. Naga statues, with five hoods for Naga kings and one for Naginis, are found at Ellora, Nagarjunakonda, and Dhulikatta. Naga stones and sculptures are widespread, donated for childbirth and marriage.
8. Andhra – Land of the Nagas
Buddhist literature identifies Andhra as the land of Nagas. The Sankhapala Jataka describes the Krishna River (Kannabenna) as a Naga realm. Amaravati stupa sculptures depict numerous male and female figures with serpent hoods. The 3rd-century Buddhist text Gandavyuha states that Manjushri, residing in Dhanyakata, converted many Nagas to Buddhism. The Sinhalese Mahavamsa mentions Naga king Nala living at Maherika on the Krishna River. Ancient Siamese literature from Thailand describes the Krishna Delta as Nagabhumi.
Telugus celebrate Nagula Chavithi on the fourth day of Kartika Shuddha after Deepavali Amavasya, primarily in Telugu states and to some extent in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, reflecting their historical connection with Nagas.
9. Conclusion – Genetic Research
The Indian subcontinent was populated through three major migrations:
- 65,000 years ago: The “Out of Africa” migration brought African peoples to various regions, including India. These “first Indians” constitute 50–65% of India’s current population.
- 9000–5000 years ago: Iranian agriculturalists introduced barley and wheat farming, contributing to the Indus Valley Civilization’s development.
- c2000 BCE: Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian steppe (Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan) entered India, bringing pre-Sanskrit and pre-Indo-Aryan languages, from which Sanskrit and other Indian languages evolved. Linguistic similarities between Sanskrit and Zend Avesta support this migration. Without bringing their original script, these migrants adopted Brahmi, Sharada, and later Devanagari scripts for Sanskrit.
DNA analysis from Rakhigarhi and other Indus Valley sites shows minimal similarity with Iranian agriculturalists and none with Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists, confirming the Indus Valley people as indigenous, unaffected by these migrations. The spread of Steppe genes post-2000 BCE is notable:
- Steppe male genes displaced indigenous male genes, suggesting Steppe men defeated or eliminated local men and took their women, introducing their genes through offspring. This indicates conflicts between Steppe and indigenous men.
- The R1 haplogroup, marking Steppe ancestry, is prevalent among Brahmins (e.g., 72.22% in West Bengal Brahmins, 67.7% in Uttar Pradesh, down to 30% in southern Brahmins), but only 15.7% in lower castes and 7.9% in tribals. This suggests Brahmins have non-indigenous origins, supporting the Aryan Migration Theory, while lower castes and tribals, with minimal Steppe ancestry, are likely descendants of indigenous groups like the Nagas.
Genetic findings align with the Naga tribe’s historical evolution:
- Nagas, unaffected by migrations since the Indus Valley Civilization, may be today’s Dalit-Bahujan communities with low Steppe ancestry.
- Brahmanical literature and inscriptions describe suppressing Nagas or marrying Naga women, mirroring genetic evidence of Steppe men eliminating indigenous men and taking their women.
- By eradicating Buddhism and Jainism and killing Naga kings, Steppe/Aryans dominated Nagas, portraying them as demons or slaves in the caste system and appropriating their cultural symbols like Naga worship. Dr. Ambedkar’s statement, “Aryans tried to wipe out Nagas by burning them, and we are their surviving descendants,” refers to this historical suppression.
References
- Nagas, The Ancient Rulers of India, Their Origin and History, Dr. Naval Viyogi
- The Nagas in Indian History and Culture, TV Mahalingam
- Indian Serpent-Lore, J.PH. Vogel
- Development of Snake Worship in Ancient India, PhD thesis by Rao, Josyula Nageswara
- The Disguises of the Demon, Wendy Doniger, Editor
- The Triumph of the Snake Goddess, Kaiser Haq
- Puranas: Another Perspective, B. Vijayabharati
- Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol 49
- Catalogue of the Coins of the Indian Museum, V.A. Smith, pp. 148–150
- Early Indian Religions, Banerjee, p. 102
- Internet sources
- V. Shinde, V. Narasimhan et al., “An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers” (Cell 179, 1-7, Oct 17, 2019)
- Vagheesh M. Narasimhan et al., “The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia” (Science, Sep 5, 2019)
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