Sufi saints like Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (1238–1325), Sheikh Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1173–1265), Shah Abdul Karim (1536–1623), and Shah Inayatullah (1655–1718) preached Hindu-Muslim unity and earned equal reverence from both communities. Sufi philosopher Baba Fattu trained under Hindu ascetic Gulab Singh, and his dargah in Himachal Pradesh remains a revered site for Hindus and Muslims alike. Kabir Das (1399–1518) spent his life propagating the philosophy that “Ram and Rahim are one.”
Spiritual leaders like Guru Nanak Sahib (1469–1539), Dadu Dayal (1544–1603), Yari Shah (1668–1725), Bulla Sahib (Yari Shah’s disciple), Dariya Sahib (1700–1780), and Tulsi Sahib (1760–1842) worked tirelessly for spiritual unity and worldly harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
Women also played a significant role in fostering cultural exchange between the two communities. Figures like Nani Bai and Mata Bai (daughters of Dadu Dayal), Dayabai, and Kshemabai were among the female saints who strengthened Hindu-Muslim camaraderie.
The founder of the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), had a close Muslim associate named Buddhi Mant Khan, a wealthy and generous man. Khan officiated Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s marriage to Vishnupriya and participated in his Hindu devotional movement, supporting the ideals and aspirations of a Vaishnava tradition’s founder.
Muslim poets like Nazir Mohammad, Fakir Habib, and Sayyid Martooza composed devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. The spiritual connections between Ayyappa Swami and Muslim yogi Vavar, or Venkateshwara Swami and Bibi Nanchar, cannot be dismissed as mere folktales. They reflect our ancestors’ desire to build harmony, which we must understand and appreciate.
Throughout history, power has influenced literature. During Buddhist dominance, the Tripitakas were composed; under Hindu kings, epics and Puranas were written. Remarkably, during Mughal rule, no works specifically promoting Islam were produced. Instead, Hindu Vedas, Vedangas, and epics were translated into Persian. Mughal rulers were keen to understand the customs, traditions, and knowledge of their subjects. Over time, with recommendations from Rajputs or on their own initiative, scholars, astrologers, translators, diplomats, singers, poets, and informants took on diverse roles in Mughal courts.
Mughal emperors regarded Sanskrit scholars as cultural ambassadors, granting them honored positions in their courts. Babur’s court (1504–21) included Sanskrit scholar Jayaraj, and Humayun’s court (1530–40) had Anand Ray. During Akbar’s reign (1556–1605), Sanskrit scholars from across the country began joining the Mughal court. Akbar established a forum (Ibadatkhana) for philosophical discussions, hosting debates among Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Christian scholars. Poets like Akbariya Kalidas, Hiravijaya Suri, and Shantichandra were part of his court. Under Akbar, Hindu texts like the Mahabharata, Atharvaveda, Ramayana, Harivansha, and Yogavasishtha were translated into Persian.
Scholars in Akbar’s court employed various strategies to gain the emperor’s favor. One Brahmin, adopting the name “Shayak Bhavan,” converted to Islam to serve as a mediator between Akbar and local Hindu scholars. During Humayun’s time, Indian astrology was introduced to the Mughal court alongside Persian astrology. Over time, Hindu astrologers joined Akbar’s court, influencing political decisions by advising on auspicious and inauspicious timings. Their influence was so significant that Akbar performed rituals to appease the stars when his daughter was born under the Mula Nakshatra and had priests conduct Surya Namaskar with him four times daily.
Some scholars fabricated Sanskrit verses, written on worn palm leaves, claiming they were authored by ancient sages. They told Akbar that “Vishnu would incarnate as a Badshah, conquer the world, protect cows, and honor Brahmins.” Akbar reportedly believed these claims. Around 1580, an anonymous writer went further, composing the Allopanishad (the Upanishad of Allah), a short text equating Hindu deities with Allah. This was dedicated to Akbar with devotion. These efforts aimed to portray the Muslim ruler as “Vishnu, Lord of the Earth,” and Akbar was somewhat influenced by them.
Akbar’s successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, continued this tradition, patronizing Sanskrit scholars and translating texts into Persian. Shah Jahan’s court included renowned scholars like Kavindracharya and Jagannath Panditaraya. However, Aurangzeb (1658–1717) did not sustain largely discontinued this practice, possibly due to his killing of his brother Dara Shikoh, a scholar who translated Upanishads into Persian and authored Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of Two Oceans), a text comparing Hindu and Islamic philosophies. Had Dara Shikoh become emperor, India’s history might have been different. Some modern scholars’ disdain for Aurangzeb may partly stem from this neglect. Later Mughal emperors showed little interest in cultural exchanges, and political instability led to the empire’s gradual takeover by the British starting in 1793.
Why did the Mughals, who came from afar, develop such a love for Sanskrit? Historian Audrey Truschke suggests they likely sought to embrace Indian identity. By the 17th century, Brahmin intellectuals had enjoyed patronage from Mughal elites for nearly two centuries. Some learned Persian and entered administrative roles, their influence persisting until the end of Mughal rule. Despite being part of the Muslim world, scholars rarely reflected the intricacies of Hindu-Muslim cultural interactions in their Sanskrit writings, except in scattered references. This historical silence is notable.
Bhanukara
Bhanukara (Bhanudatta), a distinguished Sanskrit poet, was the son of Ganapati and served in the court of Nizam Shah/Sher Shah. He composed works like Gitagaurisha, Kavyadipika, and Rasamanjari. His verses praising Bhuran Nizam Shah (r. 1510–1553) identify him as a 16th-century poet patronized by the ruler. Bhanukara described Nizam Shah marching to battle:
The earth faints under the pressure of horses’ hooves,
The ocean surges, sprinkling water on the earth’s face.
The wind gods send mighty gusts, waving banners,
And the rising dust races toward the Ashwini deities for a cure.
Celebrating Nizam Shah’s victory, he wrote:
When Lord Nizam’s wrathful gaze falls on enemies,
They crumble under his mere glance.
Even the sun in the sky trembles,
Seeking refuge in our invincible lord’s banner.
In another verse, Bhanukara vividly described the earth, unable to bear the army’s march, as if it stuck out its tongue like Nizam’s fluttering banner—an unparalleled poetic imagination. His works survive only through citations in anthologies like Padyamitra Tarangini, Padyaveni, and Rasika Jivana Sukti Sundara, as complete texts are unavailable.
Jagannath Panditaraya
Jagannath Panditaraya (1590–1670), a 17th-century poet, scholar, and musician, was a great-grandson of Vallabhacharya, founder of the Pushtimargiya Vaishnava sect. His father, Perama Bhatt, studied in Varanasi, married Vallabhacharya’s granddaughter, and settled near Mathura. Jagannath’s maternal great-grandfather was Vallabhacharya, while his paternal ancestors hailed from Munganda Agrahara near Amalapuram, Andhra Pradesh.
Jagannath earned great respect as a scholar in the courts of Mughal emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan. His surviving works include Bhamini Vilasam, Rasagangadhara, Gangalahari, Panchavilasam, and Chitramimamsakhandana. His Rasagangadhara, a seminal work on poetics comparable to Anandavardhana’s Dhvanialoka, defines poetry as “words that convey a pleasing meaning,” a definition still valued today. His bold personality was evident in his defiance of tradition by marrying a Muslim woman.
Several stories circulate about how Jagannath entered the Mughal court. One claims his family lived by begging, collecting leaves daily for plates. When a gardener stopped him, citing the land’s grant to his master by the emperor, Jagannath complained to the village officer, who mocked him, saying, “Take it up with the emperor.” Taking it literally, Jagannath traveled to Delhi, impressed Jahangir with his scholarship, and secured a position as a court scholar.
Another tale suggests Jagannath was a scholar in the court of Mewar’s Maharaja Jagat Singh. During a debate in the Mughal court on whether Rajputs were Kshatriyas and if Sanskrit was older than Arabic, Jagannath was sent to Delhi. He argued convincingly that Rajputs were Kshatriyas and Sanskrit was ancient, earning the emperor’s praise and a court position.
A third story recounts Jagannath in Jaipur, where he defeated a Muslim official in a debate on Islam. The official reported this to the emperor, who summoned Jagannath to test his intellect, ultimately appointing him to the court.
These tales may be apocryphal. Jagannath’s maternal grandfather, Vittalesh, a renowned Vaishnava ascetic and contemporary of Akbar, had connections to the Mughal court, as some women in Akbar’s harem adopted Vaishnavism through him. Through this link, Jagannath, as Vittalesh’s grandson, likely gained easy entry into the Mughal court.
While in the Mughal court, Jagannath fell in love with and married Lavangi, a Muslim woman from the royal harem and a protégé of Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan, a devout woman, sheltered unfortunate girls, educated them, and arranged their marriages to qualified Hindu or Muslim men. Lavangi was one such woman. The son born to Jagannath and Lavangi died young. This interfaith marriage led to lifelong criticism from Jagannath’s community. One legend claims that when Jagannath attempted to bathe in the Ganges in Varanasi, local scholars barred him, citing his “defilement” by marrying a Muslim woman. In response, he composed Gangalahari, a hymn praising the Ganges, to prove his purity. Another version suggests he drowned himself.
By 1620, Jagannath had become a poet in Jahangir’s court. The Padshahnama, a chronicle of Shah Jahan’s court, records that on March 9, 1634, “Jagannath Kalavant, a singer, presented twelve beautiful verses praising the emperor. Pleased, the emperor weighed him in silver, gifting 4,500 rupees and the title ‘Panditaraya.’” Historians identify this Jagannath Kalavant as Jagannath the poet, marking his transformation into Jagannath Panditaraya. (For unknown reasons, Mughal chroniclers often described Sanskrit poets like Jagannath and Kavindra as Dhrupad singers.)
Jagannath composed Asif Vilasam, a poem celebrating the victories of Asif Khan, Nur Jahan’s brother and Shah Jahan’s father-in-law. One verse reads:
Asif Khan is renowned in battle, honored by gods.
Among all kings close to the world-conqueror,
He is poetry in words, melody in poetry, love in melody.
Mastering all sciences, Nawab Asif Khan,
With his sweetness and grandeur, wins critics’ hearts.
When Asif Khan died in 1641, Jagannath lamented:
With Asif Khan’s death, his glory and dependents naturally perish.
But how strange! His fame spreads across this vast earth in all directions!
None equals Asif Khan on this earth.
His words are nectar, his persona a jewel-mine,
His glory moonlit with ambrosial rays, his wisdom ocean-like.
Praising Shah Jahan, Jagannath wrote:
In this world, for aid,
Pray only to two lords:
One, the Lord of Delhi, the other, the Lord of All.
None match their generosity.
O Shahbuddin Maharaja! None with your virtues
Exist in this world.
Even if the Creator remakes another world,
None would equal you.
O Ocean of Bounty!
Boast not of being God’s special creation,
Endowed with infinite glory, depth, and gems,
For Delhi’s Emperor Dara Shikoh equals you.
Shah Jahan’s imprisonment and the execution of his son Dara Shikoh, Jagannath’s close friend, in 1659 deeply anguished Jagannath. He composed Jagadabharana, a memorial poem praising Dara Shikoh. He left the Mughal court by 1660, later finding refuge with Prana Narayana, king of Bengal and Cooch Behar. He spent his final days in Varanasi.
Reflecting on the lack of truth and integrity in royal courts, Jagannath wrote, likely before retreating to Varanasi:
O Donkey! How long will you eat dry grass
And carry loads of clothes?
Join the king’s cavalry and eat fine fodder.
No official there will know you’re a donkey!
They’ll think anything with a tail is a horse,
And the king will believe them.
There’s no place for truth there.
In Varanasi, traditional Brahmins ostracized Jagannath for his interfaith marriage. One tale claims the humiliation drove him and Lavangi to drown themselves in the Ganges, reciting Gangalahari—53 verses—as they descended, perishing together. This may be a myth. Like poet Srinatha, Jagannath likely faced hardships in old age after losing royal patronage, dying anonymously. Admirers may have crafted this tale to dignify his tragic exit.
Hiravijaya Suri
Hiravijaya Suri (1526–1595), a Sanskrit scholar and Jain from Gujarat, joined Akbar’s court in 1582 to represent Jainism in interfaith philosophical debates at Fatehpur Sikri. Impressed by his erudition, Akbar honored him with the title “Jagadguru.” Akbar, influenced by Hiravijaya’s teachings on non-violence, abstained from meat on certain days.
Hiravijaya leveraged his influence to secure royal decrees. In 1584, he obtained an order banning animal sacrifices for 12 days during the Jain festival of Paryushana. He also persuaded Akbar to release prisoners captured in Mughal campaigns and secured a decree prohibiting fishing in the sacred Jain “Damar Lake” near Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar publicized this ban in nearby villages, delighting Jains who uphold non-violence.
Jain poet Shantichandra, in his biography of Akbar, Kripashakosh (Treasure of Compassion), described the fishing ban:
By the virtuous might of Akbar, the moon of the earth,
Even herons, catching fish with their beaks,
Took pity and stopped eating them.
In the same work, Shantichandra praised Akbar’s virtues:
He abolished the Jizya tax,
Protected many temples from desecration,
Freed countless war captives with compassion,
Honored all equally,
And deer birthed fawns fearlessly in forests.
Akbar’s court historian Abul Fazl listed Hiravijaya Suri as 21st among 140 prominent figures of the time.
Gosai Jadarup/Chitrarup
Gosai Jadarup, a Brahmin ascetic, was visited by Emperor Jahangir at least six times between 1617 and 1620, as recorded by Mughal historians. Jahangir noted, “Gosai Jadarup is profoundly learned in Vedanta and Sufism. My father, Akbar, also visited him once in Ujjain in 1601.” That both Akbar and Jahangir traveled to Jadarup’s ashram, rather than summoning him, reflects their immense respect for him.
Born around 1560, Jadarup was likely 60 when Jahangir met him in 1618. By then, he had renounced family life for asceticism. When Jahangir imprisoned his son Khusrau for rebellion in 1606, Khusrau’s father-in-law asked Jadarup to plead for his release. Jadarup convinced Jahangir, who freed Khusrau. When a Muslim official, Hakim Beg, punished Jadarup with lashes (for an unknown offense), Jahangir, furious, permanently removed Beg from duty. On Jadarup’s advice, Jahangir introduced ancient Indian weights and measures in his empire.
Around 1623, Jadarup moved from Ujjain to Varanasi, where he died in 1638. A painting of Jahangir conversing with Jadarup is preserved in the Paris Museum.
Rudrakavi
Rudrakavi composed four poems on Mughal figures: Danashahacarita (1603) on Akbar’s son Danyal Shah, Khanakhanacarita (1609) on nobleman Khan-i-Khan, Jahangiracarita (1610–1620) on Jahangir, and Kirtisamullasa (1610–1620) on Shah Jahan. These works compare Mughal figures to Hindu deities like Indra, Chandra, Shiva, and Vishnu, aligning with Sanskrit poetic tradition while integrating Mughals into Hindu culture.
Conclusion
From Babur’s time, Mughal rulers patronized Sanskrit scholars and translated Hindu epics and Puranas into Persian, fostering a synthesis of Indian and Persian cultures. Between 1501 and 1722, poets from Iran and Central Asia migrated to India. Babur himself was a poet, composing ghazals. Humayun, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan cherished poetry, hosting renowned Persian poets like Tahir Bukhari, Qara Bahadur Khan, Maulana Nadiri Samarkandi, Talib Amuli, Nur Jahan, and Muhammad Quli Salim Tahani.
Only Aurangzeb showed disinterest in literature, with no court poets during his reign.
The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar (1775–1862), preferred poetry over warfare. His court included great poets like Mirza Ghalib and Momin Khan. Himself a skilled poet, he captured the failure of his 1857 rebellion against the British:
Alas! What a grand rebellion this was,
Undone by merciless time.
Delhi slipped from Zafar’s hands in a moment.
Yet, he remained hopeful about Indian resilience:
As long as Indians hold honesty
And self-respect,
Hindustan’s sword will, one day,
Gleam before London’s throne.
Imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon, Bahadur Shah wrote his final poem:
You thought you made me an emperor,
But I hold my crown as a beggar’s bowl,
Betrayed and deceived.
How unfortunate is Zafar,
Without even six feet of land
For burial in his beloved soil.
Locals revered Bahadur Shah as a Sufi philosopher, seeking his blessings. He died on November 7, 1862, and was buried in Rangoon. His tomb remained forgotten until 1991, when workers digging a drainage canal found it three feet underground. Recognized as an “Emperor-Saint,” a Sufi dargah now stands at the site. His poignant words linger:
Who will pray for me?
Who will bring me a bouquet?
Who will light a candle for me?
I am but a dark, empty tomb.
In 2012, Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh visited the dargah to pay tribute to Bahadur Shah Zafar.
By Bolloju Baba
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