Bhakti Movement: A Revolution Against Caste and Rituals

 The Bhakti Movement (7th–17th centuries) stands as one of the most significant spiritual and social revolutions in Indian history. It championed opposition to Brahmanical dominance, protested the hierarchical caste system, promoted equality, and emphasized personal spiritual experiences. Originating with the Tamil Alvars and Nayanars, the movement spread across North India.

As Buddhism, which rejected Brahmanical authority, Vedic rituals, and the caste hierarchy, gradually declined, the Bhakti Movement emerged as a continuation of its egalitarian ideals. Like Buddhism, which used the people’s language, Pali, for its teachings, the Bhakti Movement employed local languages such as Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Hindi, and Punjabi to reach and influence the masses. With the decline of Buddhism and Charvaka philosophies, the Bhakti Movement filled the resulting spiritual void. Although Buddhism was forcibly suppressed, its essence persisted in collective memory, manifesting in the Bhakti Movement with some adaptations.

What Did the Bhakti Movement Achieve?

Bhakti proponents condemned caste inequalities, rejected Sanskrit, and declared that no priest was needed to reach God. They dismissed rituals, sacrifices, Vedas, Puranas, and epics, asserting that anyone could connect with the divine through devotion, transcending gender and caste. Figures like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ravidas, Tulsidas, and Tukaram shaped and propagated these ideas.

1. Rejecting Brahmanical Dominance and Caste Discrimination

Saints like Ravidas, from a Chamar (leatherworker) family, and Chokhamela, a Dalit, openly challenged Brahmanical supremacy and Vedic practices.

• Guru Ravidas (c. 1433–1528 CE), born and died in Benares, was influenced by Muslim Sufi saints and was a renowned poet-composer. He wrote:
  “O pandits born in Kashi, I too was born in a noble family. My profession is tied to leather, but my heart takes pride in singing the Lord’s praises.”
  This statement not only affirms his occupation but also asserts its equality with Brahmanical birth, defying the prevailing caste system. His words, “A kingdom where people are not divided into second or third ranks, where they roam freely without restrictions, brings joy to Ravidas,” echo the 20th-century vision of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.
• Chokhamela (14th century), a Mahar caste poet from the Maratha Bhakti tradition, lived under Muslim rule. Devoted to Lord Vitthoba, he was denied temple entry by Brahman priests. In response, he built his own temple, establishing a parallel spiritual center. Rejecting Vedas and Hindu doctrines, he reportedly died when a wall collapsed.

Bhakti poets sought to eradicate superstitions and blind beliefs, condemning astrology, ritualistic baths in holy rivers, and elaborate ceremonies through their writings. Kabir, for instance, critiqued idol worship: “If bowing to stones brings salvation, I’d rather bow to a mountain. Worship a millstone instead—it feeds the hungry.” He also questioned religious practices: “Why shout so loudly from the mosque? Is God deaf?”

2. Women’s Right to Spiritual Practice

Women Bhakti poets, such as Akkamahadevi, Andal, Mirabai, Janabai, Soyarabai, and Lalleswari, proved that women were equally capable of spiritual pursuit. They transcended caste, gender, and social restrictions to express unwavering devotion to the divine.

• Akkamahadevi, a follower of Veerashaivism, rejected caste and its discrimination in her vachanas (poetic verses). Veerashaivism taught gender equality and opposed caste discrimination, superstitions, animal sacrifices, and pilgrimages. She wrote:
  “To be virtuous, one must abandon their caste.” (Vachana 5/691)

3. Hindu-Muslim Unity

Some Bhakti saints bridged the divide between Hindus and Muslims, with Kabir being a prominent example. His religious identity—Hindu or Muslim—remains debated. One story claims a Hindu widow abandoned him on the banks of the Ganges, and he was raised by a Muslim weaver couple, Neeru and Neema, leading to his identification as Muslim. Kabir is celebrated as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity, equally criticizing superstitions in both religions. His verses reflect his broad perspective:

• “If God lives in the mosque, who owns the rest of the earth? Does Rama reside in idols or holy places? If so, why has no one found him there?”

Sufi saints like Sheikh Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1173–1265), Shah Abdul Karim (1536–1623), and Shah Inayatullah (1655–1718) preached Hindu-Muslim unity and earned reverence from both communities. Saints such as Guru Nanak (1469–1539), Dadu Dayal (1544–1603), Yari Shah (1668–1725), Bullah Sahib (Yari Shah’s disciple), Dariyasahib (1700–1780), and Tulasi Sahib (1760–1842) worked tirelessly for spiritual and social harmony between Hindus and Muslims.

Women also contributed to cultural exchange, including Nani Bai and Mata Bai (Dadu Dayal’s daughters), Dayabai, and Kshemabai, who strengthened Hindu-Muslim amity. Bhakti poets like Namdev fostered love and bonds between the two communities. Places like the Moinuddin Chishti Dargah in Ajmer and Tukaram’s Vitthoba Temple in Pandharpur attracted devotees from all faiths.

In the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533) had a close Muslim aide, Buddhiwant Khan. Muslim poets like Nazir Mohammed, Fakir Habib, and Sayyad Martooza composed songs of Krishna devotion. The spiritual connections between Lord Ayyappa and the Muslim yogi Vavar, or Lord Venkateswara and Bibi Nanchari, cannot be dismissed as mere folklore. They reflect our ancestors’ vision of harmony.

4. Hindutva vs. the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti Movement preached equality across castes, harmony between faiths, rejection of rituals and Brahmanical dominance, and direct communion with God through love and devotion, without intermediaries. It embraced pluralism while fostering unity and tolerance—a philosophy fundamentally opposed to Hindutva.

Hindutva, proposed by Savarkar in the 1920s, seeks to define India as a Hindu nation, advocating for one religion, one culture, and one language—a majoritarian vision that threatens India’s ancient diversity. It risks fracturing pluralism, erasing cultural variety, and marginalizing women, Bahujans, and minorities.

Imposing a singular deity (often North Indian Vaishnavism), worship style, culture, and language stifles individual freedom and suffocates society. Hindutva has reframed Hinduism as a religion that vilifies others, fostering a narrative where hating other faiths equates to being a “greater Hindu,” even indoctrinating children with such beliefs.

Historically, Buddhism and Charvaka challenged such cultural hegemony, and the Bhakti Movement continued their legacy. In the 7th–8th centuries, as Adi Shankaracharya consolidated Brahmanism into Hinduism, Bahujans—80% of India’s population—created a parallel spiritual tradition free of Vedas, caste, Sanskrit, Brahmanical dominance, and gender discrimination. They fiercely opposed the caste system and Brahmanical supremacy while advocating Hindu-Muslim unity.

Conclusion

Spirituality is a universal human need and right, but priests hid it behind Sanskrit mantras, temple entry bans, armed deities, and resource-intensive rituals. Ancient thinkers countered Brahmanism with alternatives like Buddhism and Charvaka. By the 7th–8th centuries, priests had weakened Buddhism, and Adi Shankaracharya’s spiritual campaigns nearly eradicated it (see my blog post, “Adi Shankaracharya: Spiritual Crusade”). Recognizing that this served caste and Brahmanical dominance, Bahujans forged the Bhakti Movement as a counter to Brahmanism.

Many Bhakti poets who fiercely opposed Brahmanism and its ideology met suspicious ends:

• Kabir (c. 1440–1518): His body reportedly vanished, leaving only flowers. Stories abound of harassment by Brahman priests.
• Tukaram (c. 1608–1650): One tale claims a celestial chariot took him away, while another suggests orthodox priests murdered him.
• Namdev (c. 1270–1350): Allegedly faced royal punishment due to orthodox complaints.
• Mirabai (c. 1498–1546/57): Said to have merged with Krishna’s idol in Dwarka after repeated attempts by relatives to control her.
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534): Believed to have merged with Jagannath in Puri.
• Nandanar Nayanar: Reportedly purified himself in fire.
• Chakradhar Swami (1194): His severed head allegedly reattached, and he roams the Himalayas as an immortal.
• Guru Balak Das (19th century): A Bhakti saint killed by upper-caste Hindus with knives for preaching against caste during British rule.

Hinduism has historically absorbed opposing movements. It nearly co-opted Buddha as a Vishnu avatar and similarly subsumed the Bhakti Movement. The Alvars’ and Nayanars’ songs, meant for all to sing beyond caste and creed, are now part of structured rituals in major Tamil temples. Ramanujacharya, who fought for Bahujan temple entry, is now claimed by a Brahmanical sect. Kabir, Mirabai, Andal, and Ravidas are revered as Hindu yogis, but their teachings have been sidelined.

Namdev challenged caste and Brahmanical supremacy, stating God resides in the heart, not in a Brahman’s birthright. Composing in local languages defied Sanskrit dominance. Kabir and Guru Nanak, singing “Ram and Rahim are one” in villages, broke barriers and built bridges between communities. Akkamahadevi walking naked with Shiva or Andal embracing Vishnu as her spouse were acts of rejecting patriarchy.

The Bhakti Movement was a rebellion against the caste system, rituals, and Hinduism itself, bolstered by the Sufi philosophy of Muslim rulers. It declared that all, regardless of caste or creed, could pursue spirituality. Hinduism played a minimal role in shaping this movement.

By Bolloju Baba